Galileo (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) was a hero of astronomy. Knowing that the Catholic Church did not uphold the views of Copernicus, he still pursued what he believed to be wholly factual science. After the Copernican revolution was rejected on the grounds that Aristotelianism was the product of the Divine, Galileo challenged those claims by providing observable evidence supporting heliocentrism. For this, he is named the father of observable astronomy and hailed as a champion of science. Interestingly, even with this conflict with The Church he still practiced Christianity devoutly.
3.a 1613- House Romanov was established in Russia. This was the ruling class that lead Russia through a tough history of comparatively lacking industry and development and out of the Times of Trouble; however, this primed them for a revolution after its collapse in 1917.
1600- The East India Trading Company was given a royal charter by Queen Elizabeth I. This trading super power dominated both militarily and economically over the Indian subcontinent especially over their French and Portuguese competition.
3.b René Descartes– 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650. This mathematician and philosopher was considered to be highly contentious and radical. Proclaiming that he would write and think as if no one had ever considered what he was studying. He is famous critically analyzing the way that mankind thought and departed chiefly from the authority of The Church on the premise that absolute certainty stems from mankind and not God assuming that mankind is totally autonomous.
It is fascinating to link the ideologies of Descartes and Galileo. Both believed in a particular flavor of truth that the Catholic Church was not willing to depart from. This methodology also manifested the need for practical evidence that could be repeatedly observed and verified. Logical deduction and then experimentation was the basis for every scientific pursuit that these two pioneers of thought investigated.
This is none other than Sir Isaac Newton (Dec. 25, 1642 – Mar. 20, 1726), who, among other things, laid the foundation for modern mathematics and physics. Of course, Wikipedia has more information than you could ever possibly want to know about this mathematician-physicist-philosopher-alchemist, but this site is shorter and is more focused on his scientific accomplishments.
You might be wondering what else was happening in the world while Isaac was attempting to turn lead into gold and calculating the orbit of Jupiter. Good thing you asked, because I’ve got two killer contemporaneous historical events for you:
Event 1: Qing Control of China
Flag of the Qing Empire
This flag, sporting a pretty rad dragon, represents the Qing, the last imperial dynasty of China. While the dynasty was established in 1636, it didn’t control China proper until 1644, which is, conveniently, two years of Newton was born. The Qing would continue to rule in China, in some capacity, until 1912 thus ending some 2,000 years of imperial rule in China.
Event 2: Coronation of Louis XIV
It’s Louis
This is Louis “the Sun King” XIV. He became king of France in 1643, which was after Newton was born. His ascension to the throne was kind of important because he was a fan of absolute monarchism, wherein the monarch holds absolute power and whose authority is granted by God. Mighty suspicious that he thought this, considering he was himself a monarch and all. Absolute monarchy in France was a contributing factor in the French revolution. Enough of Louis XIV and onto the main event.
Historical Person
Leo
You guessed it, it’s Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. He lived from June 9, 1640 until May 5, 1705, so he was around for most of Newton’s lifetime. Leopold did not like France. At all. In fact, he fought three separate wars with France, the last of which being the War of the Spanish Succession, where Leopold attempted to throw his son until the Spanish throne, getting to fight France as a nice bonus. Over one million people died in this war, and Leopold’s son didn’t even get the Spanish inheritance.
Conclusion
I think it is interesting seeing things completely unrelated to science which were going on at the same time as various scientific developments because these historical events are usually not mentioned when the history of science is being discussed. It was especially interesting seeing what was going in far away from these scientific events.
Nicolaus Copernicus was born February 19, 1473 and died May 24, 1543. Copernicus‘ most important contribution to astronomy is his heliocentric model of the solar system that placed the Sun at a fixed point in the center, and depicted the planets orbiting the Sun. In this model, Earth was just another planet. The model explains apparent retrograde motion by comparing the relative orbits of Earth and other planets.
Copernicus’ heliocentric model inspired astronomers such as Galileo, Kepler and Newton to develop similar theories and models about planetary orbits and the solar system. Moreover, the posthumous publication of Copernicus’ De Revolutionibus is typically regarded as the beginning of the Scientific Revolution.
Copernican Heliocentrism in De Revolutionibus. Derivative work by Professor Marginalia. uploaded to Wikipedia Commons. 2010.
What else was going on in the world while Copernicus was developing his heliocentric model of the solar system?
The Spanish Inquisition
Nobody Expects the Spanish Inquisition. Added by LexsJB to the Monty Python Wiki.
On November 1, 1478, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile established the Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition to promote hegemonic Catholicism throughout Spain. The Inquisition prosecuted heretical Jewish conversos and Islamic converts to Catholicism. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella issued the Alhambra Decree, which expelled Jews to reduce their influence on conversos. The Inquisition’s rise and fall reflects the growing fears of religious diversity, increased secularism, Christian reformations, and religious warfare. The Spanish Inquisition disbanded in 1834.
The Ninety-Five Theses
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed the Ninety-Five Theses to the doors of Wittenberg Churches, beginning the Catholic Reformation. Martin Luther, a monk-turned-priest-turned-scholar-turned-professor of theology, wrote the Theses in response to what he perceived as sinful practices by the Catholic Church. Luther admonishes the practice of buying and selling indulgences, which the clergy claimed could allow a remission of sin. In addition, Martin Luther dismisses the concept of Papal Supremacy, especially in regards to penance and to souls in Purgatory.
Facade of Martin Luther. Uploaded to Pixabay by Hansbenn.
The Theses sparked great
debate within the Catholic Church. Luther’s simple writing and the reproduction
of his works via the printing press facilitated the growth of Catholic Reformation
movements. The Ninety-Five Theses set the stage for long-lasting religious,
social, and political changes in Europe.
Hernán Cortés
Cortés was born in 1485 and died on December 2, 1527. Cortés was a Spanish Conquistador. He was famous for exploring the New World and defeating the Aztec Empire. In 1519, and against the orders of his commanding officer, Velázquez, Cortés commanded an expedition to colonize the Mayan and Aztec territory of Mexico. Cortés convinced native peoples to ally against Moctezuma II, leader of the Aztecs. To prevent his men from escaping to Cuba, Cortés reportedly scuttled his own ships. With reinforcements, thousands of native allies, and a long siege on Tenochtitlan in 1521, Cortés destroyed the Aztec capital and declared victory for Spain. Cortés’ expeditions reflect the successes of colonialism and the establishment of new European trade routes in the New World. The fall of the Aztec Empire illustrates the destructive capacities and lasting impact European colonialism has on native peoples, landscapes and cultures. As for Cortés, all he wanted was a fancy title, land holdings, and treasure.
Templo Mayor at the site of Tenochtitlán, Mexico. Uploaded to Pixabay by EntretenimientoIV.
Learning in Context: a reflection
In many textbooks, we learn about the history of topics with a similar theme. For instance, we might take a class on philosophy and science and learn about the Enlightenment. A class on colonialism might teach the Age of Exploration. We might take a class on the Scientific Revolution, or the Catholic Reformation. In each of those classes, we would learn about different historical figures and events.
But the ages listed above all happened at the same time. Michelangelo, da Vinci, and Shakespeare. Nostradamus, Galileo, and Copernicus. Bacon, Machiavelli, and Hobbes. Luther, Xavier, and Calvin. Nobunaga, Ivan the Terrible, and Charles V. Every single person on this list lived in the 16th century and helped shaped the ideas and history of the time.
We often learn about history in these isolated themes. We should remember that the history of astronomy, for instance, cannot be severed from the history of art, religion, politics. All these histories are interwoven.
sources
History.com Editors. “Inquisition”. 2018. HISTORY. A&E Television Networks. Last updated 21 August 2018.
Hillerbrand, Hans J. 7 December 2018. “Martin Luther”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, inc.
Innes, Ralph Hammond. 1 January 2019. “Hernán Cortés”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, inc.
Luther, Martin. “The 95 Theses”. 1517. Translated and published in 1997. KDG Wittenberg.
Westman, Robert S. 20 May 2018. “Nicolaus Copernicus”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, inc.
Wikipedia Contributors. 2019. “Copernican Heliocentrism”. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Last revised 28 January 2019.
Wikipedia Contributors. 2019. “Hernán Cortés”. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Last revised 4 January 2019.
Wikipedia Contributors. 2019. “Nicolaus Copernicus“. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Last revised 29 January 2019.
Galileo Galilei was extremely important to astronomy. He made some adaptations to telescopes and then used them for studying the stars. Thus, he was able to much more closely and precisely objects in the sky. He observed sun spots on the sun, proving it wasn’t perfect and thus that the objects in the heavens were not all perfect. He also overturned Aristotelian physics by showing that objects in motion stay in motion thus birds and clouds won’t fly off the Earth if it was moving. Finally, he saw the phases of Venus that would only make sense if the Earth was orbiting in the sun.
Events During Galileo’s Lifetime:
The Spanish Armada occurred during Galileo’s lifetime. The Spanish fleet of ships were defeated by the British, beginning of the end of Spanish power in the world.
The 30 Years War also started during his lifetime. It was a basically a war between Catholics and Protestants that occurred in four stages: Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, and French.
People During Galileo’s Lifetime:
Charles I of England. He ruled without parliament until 1642 when he was beheaded during the English civil war. His beheading was after Galileo died, but Charles I reigned while Galileo was alive.
Reflections:
It was very interesting to figure out what was going on in the world when these astronomers were doing their work. It is easy to think of these people as isolated and not really a part of any time period, so it was cool to see that there were wars and things of great historical significance happening while these astronomers were alive. It makes them seem more like people rather than just the work they did.
I chose the wonderful scientist Isaac Newton who lived from January 4, 1643 to March 31, 1727. Isaac Newton was important to astronomy because his book Principia explained a lot of helpful physics concepts such as the concept of gravity and the laws of motion. He also created a reflecting telescope that aided in the viewing of space.
Two major events during Newton’s lifetime are the end of the Thirty Years War and the Restoration of the Monarchy. The Thirty Years War was a bloody and long war between many European powers that ended in 1648. The second major event is the 1660 restoration of the English monarchy by Parliament after the death of the Lord Protectorate Oliver Cromwell.
A famous political being of Isaac Newton’s time was King Louis XIV of France. Louis XIV lived from 5 September 1638 to 1 September 1715 and is the longest reigning monarch in all of European history and was known for his strong monarch rule and for the building of the Palace of Versailles.
What was most interesting about this context is that these great scientists were so close together in lifetimes. It astounds me that historical astronomers, like Isaac Newton, were able to come up with complex concepts regarding the topics of physics and astronomy. Furthermore, it is impressive that they were brave enough to sometimes go against what was accepted or seen as the truth in science during their lifetimes.
Posted inHistorical|Taggedastro2110, Newton|Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context: Isaac Newton
I chose the wonderful scientist Isaac Newton who lived from January 4, 1643 to March 31, 1727. Two major events during his lifetime are the end of the Thirty Years War between many European powers in 1648 and the 1660 restoration of the English monarchy after the death of Oliver Cromwell. A famous political being of Isaac Newton’s time was King Louis XIV of France. He lived from 5 September 1638 to 1 September 1715 and is the longest reigning monarch in all of European history and was known for his strong monarch rule and the building of the Palace of Versailles. What was most interesting about this context is that these great scientists were so close together in lifetimes. It astounds me that astronomical figures, like Isaac Newton, were able to come up with complex concepts regarding physics and astronomy and that they were brave enough to sometimes go against what was accepted or seen as the truth in science during their lifetimes.
Posted inHistorical|Taggedastro2110, Newton|Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context: Isaac Newton
Galileo Galilei, born February 15, 1564, died January 8, 1642. Galileo essentially solidified Copernicus’s, Brahe’s, and Kepler’s work that showed that Earth is not the center of the universe. His observations of the sun, moon, Venus, and Jupiter’s moons were important in proving that celestial bodies are not perfect and that most things in the solar system (except our own moon) do not orbit the Earth.
In 1587, Mary (Queen of Scots) was executed. She was/is a well-known figure whose reign and whose life were surrounded in controversy.
In 1603, the Tokugawa Period began in Japan. This was the last period of ‘traditional’ Japanese government, before it became heavily influenced by external forces from Europe, the US, and other nations.
William Shakespeare also lived during the same time as Galileo. He was born April 26, 1564 and died April 23, 1616. Shakespeare was an important, influential playwright/author who wrote many plays that are still studied and taught today.
It was just interesting for me to
realize that all of these things were happening at once. Maybe because of how school
and classes are structured, it’s easy to think of everything I’ve learned or
seen in one subject as completely separate from everything else, but this
assignment reminded me of just how unrealistic that segregation is. This
assignment helped me ‘connect the dots,’ as it were, between at least four
separate things I’ve learned about. Galileo I’ve heard of in past science
courses (as well as this one); Mary, Queen of Scots, I’ve been exposed to briefly
in history classes and in TV shows depicting her reign and death; the Tokugawa
period is something we’ve just finished discussing in a Japanese history class
I’m taking this semester; and Shakespeare I’ve studied in various English
classes over the years. It honestly never occurred to me before to step back and
realize that the dates for everything overlap the way they do.
Nicholas Copernicus was born on February 19th, 1473 at a country of Torun, Royal Prussia, Poland. He died on May 24th, 1543 at Frauenburg, East Prussia.
Johannes Kepler was born on December 27th, 1571 at Weil der Stadt Wurttemberg (Germany). He died on November 15th, 1630 at Regensburg.
Tycho Brahe was born on December 14th, 1546 at a country of Knudstrup, Scania, Denmark, and died on October 24th, 1601 at Prague.
Galileo Galilei was born on February 15th, 1564 at a country of Pisa (Italy) and died on January 8th, 1642 at Arcetri close to Florence.
Isaac Newton was born on January 4th, 1643 at New Style, Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England and died on March 31st, 1727 at London.
Who of these Astronomers lived at the same time:
Johannes Kepler and Tycho Brahe lived in the same period. They were both alive for 30 years at the same time.
Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei lived in the same period. They were both alive for 59 years at the same time.
Galileo Galilei and Tycho Brahe lived in the same period. They were both alive for 37 years at the same time.
Of the 5 Astronomers the one that interested me most was Isaac Newton; because, he discovered the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. He was also one of the most important astronomers in the history of modern science.
Other Historic Events that happen while Isaac Newton was living were:
In 1647, a heavy earthquake strikes Santiago Chile and killed 1/3 of the population.
Famous Figure that lived while Isaac Newton was living:
Charles II – Born May 29th, 1630 – Died Feb 6th, 1685 – Charles II was proclaimed King of England in 1660.
Reflection:
I found it interesting to learn about the 3 laws of Newton and how they continue to be true 300 years later, very smart person and also lived a long time, 84 years, when modern medicine did not exist.
Johannes Kepler – Born: December 27; 1571, Died: November 15, 1630. Want to learn more? Click HERE.
Virginia. This was the era where the United States did not exist yet, and the English were just beginning to cross the Atlantic and settle in the territory. Jamestown’s settlement was very important to establishing the future of the land. Want to learn more? Click HERE.
In 1611 the King James Version of the Bible was published in England. This was a huge revolution for the Church because before this point only elect members of the clergy had everyday access to the scriptures. Since the time of this publication, the Bible has become the most circulated and read book of all time. According to Wikipedia there has been an estimated 5 billion copies sold and distributed worldwide. Want to learn more? Click HERE.
1564-1616; the life of William Shakespeare. Shakespeare is one of the most famous playwrights of all time. Works of his like: Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and MacBeth live on to this day and are still taught in classrooms around the world. He is credited with some of the first prominent uses of prose in drama. He set a whole new standard for what a play or drama can be. Want to learn more? Click HERE.
It’s important to understand the context that someone is operating out of in order to fully appreciate the progress they made. For example, simply hearing “Alex Smith completed an Iron Man race” would not tend to bring much inspiration to anyone. But when you look at the context of his life, that he completed the Iron Man while pulling his 5-year-old son suffering from muscular dystrophy along with him the entire time, the story brings with it much more power. Likewise, in the context of the astronomers and the history of science, it’s helpful to know the context from which they made their discoveries. For Kepler, he was establishing the basis of long-lasting mathematical principles, at the same time that modern prose was first beginning to evolve through the works of Shakespeare.
Isaac Newton lived from 4 January 1643 until 31 March 1727 (according to the Gregorian Calendar, although it wasn’t used at the time). During his time he was known as a natural philosopher, and his scientific achievements spanned mathematics, physics, and astronomy. His formulation of the laws of motion and gravity (Newtonian, or classical, physics) was fundamental for subsequent developments in physics and astronomy, especially in the understanding of planetary motion. He is also credited with the invention of calculus (at least among certain anti-Leibniz crowds). His magnum opus, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, is one of the most well-known and important works in all of science.
Significant events in European history which took place during his life include:
1648: The Thirty Years’ War ends with the Peace of Westphalia, which established the modern system of diplomatic negotiation and national sovereignty and settled several long-standing conflicts among European states.
1666: The Great Fire of London destroys the medieval section of the city, including St. Paul’s Cathedral. Various plans submitted for the reconstruction of the burnt portions of the city highlight the development of early modern urban planning in Europe.
Another historical figure who lived at the same time was Sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, who ruled from 1658 until 1707. He is known for his expansionist aspirations, reversal of longstanding policies of religious tolerance, and role in bringing about the fall of the Mughal Empire which followed his reign.
I’ve treated several topics within late 17th century and early 18th century history in my art history studies, and they served as my entry point for this assignment. The events and historical figure I chose have been touched upon in various classes I’ve taken, and I enjoyed learning more about them. Whereas I’m used to approaching history through an artistic context, this assignment helped me practice different approaches to history which led me to interesting tidbits I otherwise would have missed.
Posted inHistorical|Taggedastro2110, Newton|Comments Off on The Times of Isaac Newton: a Window into the Early Modern Era
