Historical Astronomers in Context

Justus Sustermans - Portrait of Galileo Galilei, 1636.jpg
Wikipedia

Galileo Galilei was born on February 15, 1564 and died on January 8, 1642. During his lifetime he made monumental contributions to the world of astronomy. He did not invent the telescope, but he made improvements to it and this allowed him to observe the universe, like no one had ever done. Some of the things that he observed was the 4 moons of Jupiter, craters on the moon, the phases of Venus, and much more.

While Galileo was busy making contributions in the world of science, so much was going on around him. During his lifetime, Jamestown, Virginia was settled by England, setting up the first, permanent English Colony in North America. Also, the King James version of the Bible was created. This is also a major event because that version of the Bible is still used by the Catholic Church today! So much was going on at this time, it was really jammed pack with events. Along with all these event, many other significant figures were around during this time. For instance, William Shakespeare was actively writing and becoming one of the greatest authors in the English language. It really puts time into perspective when you realize how much is going on at any given moment.

It is absolutely crazy when you look back into time and see how much was happening at once. It is still like that today, history is literally being created every day. I always enjoy thinking of this in terms of the Cosmic Calendar. The entire history of human civilization has only been the last few seconds of the last day of the year. It is amazing when you think about how much happens in such a short amount of time, relative to the age of the universe.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

1. Isaac Newton: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27.

2. I admire Isaac Newton (12/25/1642-03/20/1726) a whole lot and here is why:

He was modest enough to build on the work of Kepler’s law, instead of making his own from scratch. Through his work, we were able to have a deeper understanding of gravitation and its effect on planetary motion; The principia which he first published on 5 July 1687 and later in 1713, is what gave him the international recognition that has lasted till present day. In this publication, he talked about how the results of his findings conclude that indeed there is a gravitational attraction. Because he could not indicate the cause of gravity at the time, he described his findings as “hypotheses non-fingo.”

 

3A.  In 1699, French settlers moved into Mississippi and Louisiana.

  • Louisiana was named in honor of French King Louis XIV.
  • It became a French territory in 1682 when Rene-Robert, Cavalier de La Salle claimed the area.

1648 marked the end of Thirty years’ War.

  • This was a war fought primarily between 1618 and 1648.
  • It resulted in the German population being reduced to about half its size.

 

3B.   A famous author named Voltaire lived from 21 November 1694-30 May 1778.

  • He was a polygenist. He suggested that each race had entirely separate regions. Because of his beliefs which were considered to be somewhat abnormal at the time, his work as a prolific writer was well-publicized.

 

4. Learning this helped me to realize the progression of events over the years. Through this historical context, I was able to develop some sort of timeline of astronomical events which served as a foundation for what we know in the present day.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Historical Figures of Astronomy

Astronomer Birth Date Death Date
Nicholas Copernicus 19 February 1473 24 May 1543
Galileo Galilei 15 February 1564 8 January 1642
Johannes Kepler December 27, 1571 November 15, 1630
Isaac Newton 4 January 1643 31 March 1727
Tycho Brahe 14 December 1546 24 October 1601

Note: Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler lived at the same time for 59 years (1571-1630). Besides this, no other two figures lived at the same time.

Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler was born in December of 1571 and dies in November of 1630. Kepler was a very important figure in the scientific revolution in the 17th century. He made key contributions to the study of astronomy, specifically concerning planetary motion. Throughout his studies and published works, he developed his 3 laws of planetary motion. These were rejected at first by other astronomers, but they ended up being the foundation for the universal gravitation theory developed by Newton. The most influential works that impacted this theory are Astronomia novaHarmonices Mundi, and Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae.

Key Historical Events (1571-1630)

                During Kepler’s time, many key world events occurred. Below are a couple that are commonly known and provide perspective about the times.

                In 1595, Shakespeare was busy developing his works. He created most of his works between 1589 and 1613. Many of his pieces, specifically his tragedies, became very famous around the world. They’ve consistently been an essential part of education since their creation, and they were an important part of the development of the arts at the time.

In 1620, the Puritans landed in Massachusetts. This colony is the reason for Thanksgiving in America, and they played many roles in political ventures with the Native American tribes in the area. It did not exist for very long because it ended up merging with another colony and becoming a part of the colonization of the states.

Key Historical Figure

                Oliver Cromwell was born in 1599 and died in 1658, and the first 40 years of his life are actually quite unknown. Later in his life, though, Cromwell became an English political and military leader. He is known as a very controversial figure in history, as some believed him to be a dictator and others believed him to be a hero. He was a very large influence on Britain, Scotland, and Ireland, though it depends on who you ask if it was positive or negative.

Reflection

                Looking at the historical events that occurred during Kepler’s time, it made it easier to conceptualize when the development of astronomical theories took place. For example, it was very interesting to realize that Kepler had developed his theories on planetary motion around the same time that colonization of America was occurring. This contrast of scientific development in one place and societal development in another place is really cool to think about. It’s also thought provoking to compare the development of the arts with the development of science, as Shakespeare was creating his works at this time. It seems as though this era in general contained a lot of revolutionary events around the world.


References

En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Galileo Galilei. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei [Accessed 29 Jan. 2019].

En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Nicolaus Copernicus. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus [Accessed 29 Jan. 2019].

En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Oliver Cromwell. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell [Accessed 29 Jan. 2019].

En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Plymouth Colony. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Colony [Accessed 29 Jan. 2019].

En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Tycho Brahe. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe [Accessed 29 Jan. 2019].

En.wikipedia.org. (2019). William Shakespeare. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare [Accessed 29 Jan. 2019].

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Some Context… But More!

Tycho Brahe (14 December 1546 – 24 October 1601) was the master of unassisted observational astronomy. A major portion of this was due to his building of the observatory and castle Uraniborg. Uraniborg was designed inside and out to collect the most precise measurements known at the time. Possibly though, more important was that he gave this data to his then-assistant, Kepler, when he died. Kepler then used this data to form his Laws of Planetary Motion. [5]

Events and People during the Lifetime

  • 1582- Pope Gregory XIII institutes the Gregorian Calendar. However, not all countries adopted it simultaneously. Great Britain and its territories did not change until 1752 (which is why Newton’s day of death differs depending on the methodology). [6]
  • 1600 – Giordano Bruno was burned as a heretic. While he did participate in then-called “magics,” he also expanded upon Copernicus’ model of the universe and was openly pantheistic. [6] [8]
  • William Shakespeare: Baptized 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616. Obviously a household name, Shakespeare wrote countless plays and poems and stories that continue to be performed, analyzed, referenced, and parodied. [7]

I think what was most surprising was realizing how quickly things happened. The Gregorian calendar took literal millennia to be established as the global standard. The formal magics were still in practice well into the lives of many of these astronomers. In many ways, math and astronomy appear to be on the cutting edge in this time period, soon giving room for physics to blossom as a discipline.

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Tycho Brahe in Context

Tycho Brahe was born on December 14, 1546 and died on October 24, 1601. These dates are converted to the Gregorian Calendar, as the Gregorian Calendar was established during his lifetime. Tycho Brahe made vast improvements to the instruments of measurement used in the study of astronomy. He was a pioneer in observational astronomy in an era before telescopes and made fascinating observations using only his naked eye, such as that the moon rotated around the earth. He kept detailed record of the motion of Mars that were later used by Kepler to deduce the laws of planetary motion. Here is a link to Brahe’s Wikipedia article.

In 1565, 19 years after Brahe’s birth, the Spanish colonized Florida. In 1582, the Gregorian Calendar was established as the most consistent way of recording dates. Here is a Middle Ages Timeline.

In 1564, 18 years after Brahe’s birth, William Shakespeare was born. Shakespeare was and is still regarded as one of the greatest English writers ever, whose plays and poems of comedy, drama, and tragedy are still performed and studied today. Here is a link to Shakespeare’s Wikipedia article.

It is fascinating to learn about the context behind influential discoveries from influential people. If one were to ask me “around what time period were people able to chart the movement of Mars”, I would not even know where to start. Learning that Brahe was able to do this without aid from a telescope during America’s colonization and Shakespeare’s era of writing was surprising, impressive, and interesting.

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Two Times Sir Isaac Newton Could have Died

Newton

Sir Isaac Newton (Jan. 4th, 1643 — Mar. 31st, 1727) is important to astronomy because he formulated the mathematical and physical ideas that would give future astronomers the tools to better understand the universe. As he began to formulate the idea of universal gravitation, he suspected that it extended beyond those things on Earth—perhaps it pulled the moon as well. From here, he also developed laws of motion that created a foundation to understand why planets followed certain paths. With these ideas, scientists began to find explanations for things such as the orbits of comets and how planets moved. To read more about his discoveries, you can click here.

While Newton began his studies at the University of Cambridge, scary things were happening in England. The great plague broke out in London in 1655. This directly affected Newton because his school briefly closed at this point, so he went home for two years. The economy suffered as trade stopped and the wealthy fled while the poor had no choice but to stay. The official death toll is recorded at 68,596 deaths, or 15% of the population, but of course it is likely that that is an underestimation.

A year later in 1666, the Great Fire of London occurred after a particularly hot and dry summer. It began on September 2nd and spread with an east wind until half the city was engulfed by September 4th. They tried to put it out with buckets of water and pulling down the houses in its path, but it did not go out until September 6th, leaving only 1/5th of the city standing. A surprising benefit of this mass destruction was that it helped clear out a crowded and disease-ridden city and gave them a chance to start anew.

Newton was not, of course, the only one making great scientific progress at this time. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek lived at the same time as Newton. . He advanced our understanding of microbiology and was born October 24th, 1632 and died August 26th, 1723. He made many microscopes, under which he would study microorganisms such as bacteria, nematodes, blood cells, and sperm cells. His observations were special because of his skill in lens grinding allowed him to magnify up to 200 times, and he took great care in describing all the things he placed under his microscopes.

Learning about Newton’s historical context is a reminder that this man did not do science in a bubble, and the world is a very dangerous place. His school had to close during the great plague! Then a year later, the whole city caught on fire! If he hadn’t left the city during the plague outbreak, perhaps he would have been a casualty of the fire. I wonder where our understanding of physics would be in that case. It makes me wonder how many brilliant, budding scientists we lost too early.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Tycho Brahe (December 14, 1546 – October 24, 1601) – As one of the last of the naked-eye observers, Brahe juggled the ideas of the Copernican system and the Ptolemaic system, using his own research to develop his own model known as the Tychonic system.  Although he was unable to discover the fact that the Earth orbits the sun, he was successful in figuring out that the planets (except Earth) orbits around the sun and that the moon orbits Earth.  As a result of his status as a Danish noble, Brahe was also able to build a research institute dedicated to the study of astronomy.  His precise measurements helped set a foundation for future discoveries by other astronomers such as Johannes Kepler.

Events of the Time

1562—1598 – French Wars of Religion – During the later half of the 16th century, the conflict over the nature of religion in France intensified with a series of battles and displays of violence between the Roman Catholics and the Huguenots (Calvinist Protestants).

1588 – Spanish Armada – The powerful Spanish fleet, invading England, underwent a failed invasion and lost a decisive battle in what became and undeclared war between the Spanish and English lasting until roughly 1604.

1577—1580 – Francis Drake Circumnavigation of the World – In one expedition, Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the world, while serving as the captain for the entire voyage.

Notable Figure

William Shakespeare – He was born on April 26, 1564 (18 years after Brahe) and died on April 23, 1616 at the age of 52.  Shakespeare was a poet, playwright, and actor living in England during the time.  Commonly known as the greatest dramatist and an esteemed English writer, Shakespeare’s impressive dramas and comedies were among the most popular of his intellectual work, maintaining prestige and relevance even today.

Reflection

Upon reflection, I am quite impressed by the fact that many early astronomers (like Brahe) were able to make remarkable discoveries with just their naked-eyes.  Without the help of telescopes, Brahe was able to accurately predict planetary orbits around the sun and the moon’s orbit around earth without advanced technology.  Living during the 16th century, Brahe was fortunate enough to be encouraged to discover and break new boundaries as a result of the Renaissance movement.  Coinciding with the religious wars, it was clear that science and new schools of thought (based on theory and not religion) were beginning to take shape in the world.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Isaac Newton Born: January 4, 1643, Died: March 31, 1727

Newton’s development of a preliminary universal law of gravity gave astronomers an explanation for the attraction of mass in space, and the orbits that they had dedicated their lives to studying. The development of calculus and the study of rates of change was significant for mathematical models around the globe. Newton also brought clarity to our understanding of optics.

While Newton worked to change the way that interested humans would view the world for the rest of time, human history continued to rage around him. Below are brief descriptions of two events that occurred around the world during Newton’s life with links to more information.1718: The city of New Orleans was founded by the French government in southern North America. New Orleans would quickly develop into a center of trade due to its advantageous position at the mouth of the Mississippi River.

1701-1714: The War of the Spanish Succession was fought in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. Spain maintained its territories, but its royal family gave their succession rights to the French royal family.

1718: The city of New Orleans was founded by the French government in southern North America. New Orleans would quickly develop into a center of trade due to its advantageous position at the mouth of the Mississippi River.

While Isaac Newton looked to the skies, humans continued their conquest of their peers across the globe. This all occurred in a blink on the celestial calendar. It is fascinating to reflect on the different scales of problems attacked by Newton and the world governments of the day. While exploration of the planet was far from complete, government interests remained purely terrestrial, ruled by petty disputes over ruling family lineage and land use in a “new” continent. Meanwhile, Isaac Newton spent his brief time on our planet tackling problems that concern the entire universe and not just a single group of people. Having the perspective to look to the skies absolutely reflects well upon Newton several centuries later.

Sources:

“Astronomer.” Biography.com, A&E Networks Television, 2 Apr. 2014, http://www.biography.com/people/groups/scientists-astronomers.

“War of the Spanish Succession.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 29 Jan. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession.

“New Orleans.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 13 Jan. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans.

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Historical Astronomers in Context: Nicholas Copernicus

Image from Biography

Nicholas Copernicus (February 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543) was a Polish scientist who mathematically calculated the details of a heliocentric, or sun-centered, solar system.  He uncovered relationships that permitted him to calculate each planet’s orbital period and the distance from each planet to the sun in terms of the astronomical unit (AU), or the Earth-Sun distance.  Copernicus also proposed that the Earth rotates on an axis, and this axis changes in direction very gradually to cause the precession of the equinoxes.

While Copernicus was making his discoveries, a lot was happening in the world. From 1508 to 1512, Michelangelo was painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel with several colorful and complex scenes from biblical scripture.  On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther posted his “95 Theses” to denounce corrupt practices of the Catholic Church. This document sparked the Protestant Reformation. Italian Leonardo da Vinci (April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519) was an artist, inventor, engineer, scientist, and architect whose work exemplified the humanist ideal of the Renaissance.

Having previously studied the cosmic calendar, it is already clear to me that on the grand scale of things, human civilization and scientific advancement has only comprised a short blip in the vast history of the universe.  Copernicus was alive during the Renaissance, and it is very fascinating to see how other aspects of civilization were progressing alongside important astronomical discoveries. Around the same time that Copernicus was challenging the geocentric model, Martin Luther was denouncing the established church, and artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci were creating masterpieces.  It certainly was a time of great innovation and change.

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Copernicus Does a Revolution

Copernicus is known for challenging the established geocentric model that was integral to the catholic church’s perception of earth’s divine creation with his publication of The Revolutions (Of the Celestial Spheres). He set the stage for a better understanding of our place in the solar system, and soon after his death in 1543 the world of astrology would drastically change as those other major historical figures added their contributions to our knowledge of the heliocentric existence. During Copernicus’ life, the Vatican would have its holy power challenged for the first time from within and responded by cracking down on dissidents. This manifested itself in the Spanish Inquisition, but just a few years younger than Copernicus was the revolutionary Martin Luther, who founded a new religion separate from Catholicism. The shattering of religious norms was characteristic of Copernicus’ time, but the power of the church still dissuaded him from publishing the Revolutions until he was old and fearless. Seeing how he helped change the common perception of reality in the context of the fragmenting, yet power hungry medieval church sets the stage for the scientific revolutions that followed in the late renaissance and enlightenment.

The geocentric model on the right just seems wrong. Copernicus’ model on the left is better

Source: Wikipedia (all info- Copernicus, Martin Luther, Spanish Inquisition, Catholicism, Protestant Reformation, De Rev, and the image is from the Copernican revolution page.)

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