Reconciling Science and Religion

Posted on February 20, 2021 by rightascensionanddeclinolan

In 1615, Galileo wrote a letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (read: the Church) “to accommodate Copernicanism with the doctrines of the Catholic Church … [by] arguing that the Copernican theory was not just a mathematical calculating tool, but a physical reality” (source).  In his letter, Galileo claimed – among other things – the following:

  • The Book of Nature [science] and Book of Scripture [religion] are complementary, not contradictory.
  • There is only one truth [about the universe, and it is suggested by both Books if we read them correctly].
  • Science is a legitimate way to truth, independent of Revelation.
  • Holy Scripture cannot be used against scientific statements once these are proven beyond doubt by scientific methods.

(David Weintraub, “Galileo Part 2: Religious Response through the Inquisition Hearings of 1616: Galileo’s Letter to Madame Christina, Part 2” (Nashville, TN, 2020).)

In other words, the Church argued that Copernicanism was wrong: Scripture should come before science, and because Scripture seemed to argue for geocentrism and geostatism, heliocentrism must be wrong.  Galileo pushed back: science should come before Scripture and guide our interpretation of Scripture (i.e., we should use the Book of Nature to interpret the Book of Scripture), so because science argued for heliocentrism, the Church needed to change its understanding of Scripture.  In short, the question facing the Church and Galileo was one of order, one asking if Scripture should elucidate science (the Church’s argument) or vice versa (Galileo’s argument).

Ultimately, heliocentrism proved to be correct, yet that doesn’t diminish the conundrum we faced at this moment of astronomical history – when faced with conflicting “evidence” (Scripture versus “Galileo’s discoveries about the Moon, Jupiter’s moons, Venus, and sunspots” (source)), we had to choose between science and religion; we had to choose to let science guide our interpretation of religion.

Though we have settled the heliocentrism-versus-geocentrism-and-geostatism debate, the need to balance science and religion remains relevant today.  Do you believe in Genesis 1’s creation story, or do you believe in the Big Bang?  Do you believe in there being a god (an explicit claim from religion), or do you believe there is no god because science cannot find evidence of one (note that this is an indirect extension of science; science does not explicitly claim there is no god)?

Or, do you think these are bad questions to ask?  Like Galileo, do you believe that Nature and Scripture are not mutually exclusive?  Can we understand Genesis 1 in the context of the Big Bang?  Can we understand the existence of a god in the context of science being unable to find evidence for it?

In situations like these, we’re faced with two questions: should we use science to understand religion (like Galileo), and how do we do it?  Though the battle to reconcile science and religion might not end anytime soon, that doesn’t mean it isn’t a battle worth fighting.

Cover of Galileo’s Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (courtesy of Wikipedia).

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 17, 2021 by zhengjs1
Image via Wikipedia

Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer, was important to our history for discovering three laws of planetary motion that are now named after him as well as finding key evidence for the highly-debated Sun-centered idea. Kepler’s first law explained that each planet orbits the Sun following an elliptical path with the Sun as a focus. His second law states that a line connecting the planet to the Sun will sweep out equal areas in the same amount of time. Kepler’s third and last law emphasizes that planets further from the Sun orbits it at slower average speeds. Through discovering these relationships, Kepler’s data matches with those of Tycho’s, providing strong support for Aristarchus’s theory that the Sun is at the center instead of Earth.

Historical Events

1590 – Unification of Japan: Toyotomi Hideyoshi completed his military unification of Japan and most of its provinces. During his dictatorial rule, Hideyoshi brought about many major changes such as a new class system and taxation laws. Hideyoshi also continued his military campaign into foreign land, specifically the Korean peninsula.

1609 – Hudson’s Third Voyage: With the backing of the Dutch East India Company, Henry Hudson sailed on his Third Voyage toward the New World. During this voyage, Hudson explored the New York Harbor, clashing and trading with the indigenous people. He also ventured deep into a river connected to the harbor, which is now known as the Hudson River.

Historical Figure

King Phillip II of Spain – Known for ruling Spain during its Golden Age, King Phillip II claimed many dominions in Italy and the Americas. While he was a stubborn and far-from-perfect king, Phillip II made Spain into a dominant world power.

Brief Reflection

As I read about historical figures such as Kepler, Copernicus, and Newton; It was not only interesting to learn about their successes but also much about their failures. While they’re revered today as important figures in astronomy, their radical ideas at the time were not exactly loved, even being looked down upon and rejected by the scientific community, showing how some didn’t even see the fruits of labor during their lifetime.

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Galileo in Context

Posted on February 17, 2021 by weatherbysofferings

Galileo Galilei (15 February, 1564 – 8 January, 1642) was important to astronomy for quite a few reasons, so I’ll stick to the main points. To start with, he made major improvements to the design of the telescope through his study and application of optics, paving the way for his own and other’s astronomical observations. This enabled several other significant discoveries he made, such as his cataloguing of the four largest moons of Jupiter. He also created detailed accounts of the moon’s surface and the phases of Jupiter, while also advocating for Heliocentrism.

At the time of Galileo, several other significant world events occurred. For one, the first English colonies were founded within the future United States, notably Jamestown and Plymouth, as well as the failed Roanoke colony before. 

Early in his life,the stage was also being set for the emergence of English dominance in the European stage, after the defeat of the Spanish Armada by the English in 1588. 

Indeed, one of the most important English rulers to ever live, Elizabeth I, ruled during part of Galileo’s lifetime. It was under her that Britain was seen to have entered a golden age of culture and power. 

For me, what I found interesting about learning the context of the times of these astronomers, and Galileo specifically, was how much the world around them was changing as they gazed up at the stars. Europe had just emerged from the Reformation, and was still in the midst of religious turmoil, all while a New World was explored and settled, and politics constantly shifted on the home front. And yet, for these astronomers, they had little concern for worldly things, and instead used the opportunities presented to them and their own innovation to make groundbreaking discoveries that would shape the future of science and astronomy. 

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 17, 2021 by wendyyb

Tycho Brahe is my chosen astronomer. He was born on 14, Dec. 1546 and died 24, Oct. 1601. (Wikipedia)

Some historical events that occurred during Brahe’s lifetime include:

Some historical figures that existed during Brahe’s liftime include:

  • William Shakespeare (1564-1616): A famous playwright who wrote works like Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet (The Famous People)
  • Pocahontas (1596-1617): Engaged in intercultural diplomacy between English settlers and her Powhatan tribe, famous for interactions with the colonizer, John Smith (The Famous People)

Putting things in historical context for me was really interesting because in my mind, these people and events were all very distinct from each other. I think that part of that has to do with the way that I learned about Pocahontas vs. Shakespeare vs. Brahe where each was taught in a separate class subject and thus compartmentalized separately from each other, existing in their own bubbles. It’s cool to think that so much was happening in approximately the same time period. It also makes me wonder if these events and people impacted each other in ways we don’t know about.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 17, 2021 by hunterspiveyastr

My Chosen Astronomer:

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) acted as the individual who tied together all the theory and observations of the astronomers that came before him. His invention of calculus and other mathematical accomplishments allowed him to apply these new concepts to the perceived circular motion of the planets and moon to develop his theory of gravity. This discovery of gravity finally provided a mechanism by which the motion of the celestial bodies could be explained and validated the observations and theories of previous astronomers.

Historical Events During Newton’s Life:

In 1665 when Newton was only 23, the Great Plague of London broke out. An epidemic of the bubonic plague, it killed roughly 70,000 people in London, and forced Newton to retire to his family home in Woolsthorpe. It was there that he worked extensively on his research. Later on in 1692, while Newton was just turning 50, over in what would become the United States, the Salem Witch Trials were taking place, where roughly 200 people were accused of witchcraft and about 20 of them were killed as punishment.

Another Historical Figure:

Newton lived during the same generation as King Louis XIV of France, who was born in 1638 and died in 1715. Louis XIV took the throne of France at the age of 5 and proceeded to have the longest reign of any monarch in European History, acting as monarch of France for over 72 years. He is attributed with consolidating power in France and moving away from a feudal society.

Reflection:

What I found especially interesting about learning about this context is how close together so many of these astronomers lived. I think I always kind of assumed that each astronomer was the lone great mind during their time period, never interacting with other notable individuals. However, as has become clear, many of these great astronomers like Kepler, Galileo, and Brahe all lived in such a time when they could communicate with each other. I imagine having other great minds to communicate with and bounce ideas off of helped contribute greatly to their individual works. Additionally, it seems like many of these great astronomers made some of their great accomplishments/discoveries as young as their 20s. It is crazy to consider that Newton, for example, was discovering gravity at an age not that much older than us. It simultaneously makes me feel like a disappointment and yet also realize I might be able to do more than I initially thought.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 17, 2021 by allyworthington

Johannes Kepler was born on December 27th, 1571 and died on November 15th, 1630.

After influential astronomer Tycho Brahe passed away, his unfinished work and data was given to Kepler to continue. With this data, Kepler discovered that Mars’ orbit is an ellipse, publishing Astronomia Nova in 1609 (now known as Kepler’s first two laws). Later in 1619, Kepler published his third law in Harmonices Mundi. These laws continue to be fundamental to astronomy and physics today.

Johannes Kepler, from Wikipedia

During Kepler’s lifetime, a number of historical events occurred, including the Dutch colonization of the East Indies, and the Dutch founding New Amsterdam (New York). In 1595, the Dutch began a journey to the East Indies to source spices from Asia, which was hugely profitable for the country. Then came the formation of the United East India Company, formed by the Dutch government. Later in 1626, the Dutch West India Company colonized a fur trading settlement called New Amsterdam, which we know today to be New York. 30 years later, New Amsterdam had a population of 1,500 people. 

A famous person that lived during Kepler’s lifetime is William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616). Shakespeare is known as one of the most infamous and incredible writers in the entire world, famous for his plays, sonnets, and poems. Some of his most notable works are Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and Macbeth.

I generally think of astronomical discoveries as more modern—after all, how could people observe the heavens without all of the fancy technology that we have today? Realizing that Kepler lived during the colonization of New York, and during the lifetime of Shakespeare, puts the timeline of astronomical discoveries in context. It is absolutely incredible what Kepler, and other early astronomers, were able to accomplish so long ago. I truly believe Kepler would be proud that his laws still ground astronomy today, and that he has become a household astronomy name.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 17, 2021 by justinboreskyvanderbiltedu

Sir Isaac Newton born December 25 1642, died March 20 [March 31], 1727

During Newton’s life two major events that occurred were the bubonic great plague and the Renaissance. The bubonic plague killed 75,000 people in England, black rats and fleas brought the disease back to the country. Whole towns of people died and people would die and be left in the streets. The renaissance was a rediscovering of classical literature and philosophy. During this time there was a shift on a bigger focus on learning and understanding. Most of the greatest philosophers are from this time period.

Another famous person alive during this time period was William Penn, who was the founder of Pennsylvania and most famously known for his part in the Society of Friends(most famously known as the quakers). Penn preached things way ahead of his time, like democracy and equality for all. He showed this by being very well liked by the Native Americans who he crossed paths with. To this day he still has an effect on society with quaker groups still being around today as well as school dedicated to his ideas.

I thought what was interesting was how really bad things turned into really good things. If there was no Bubonic plague there is a very high chance Newton wouldn’t have become the Newton we know. One small event altered everything which forced Newton to go into isolation for a time period where he came out with ideas and concepts that we still use today. What that shows is how everything happens for a reason. Newton needed this isolation to become the hero he is to science, and because of the plague he got this

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 17, 2021 by lauryn28

 

Johannes Kepler, image via NPR

Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer born December 27, 1571, in Weil der Stadt, Germany. He is well known in the field of astronomy for his three laws of planetary motion. He found that planets orbit on an ellipse rather than a perfect circle, that the planet and the sun sweep out equal areas during equal intervals in time, and that the square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the orbit. These laws helped to support the idea that the planets orbited around the sun, which was contrary to the geocentric views of the time. He died November 15, 1630.

Many of the significant events that occurred during Kepler’s lifetime were related to religion. Two events that occurred were the counter-reformation which forced him to move to Prague, and the 30 Years War.  

Pope Urban VIII was an important figure that was alive during Kepler’s lifetime. His position as pope made him important, especially in this time period because of the high tensions between Catholics and Protestants and the 30 Years War, which affected Kepler as he had to move multiple times to evade persecution. 

I think that understanding the historical background of Kepler’s lifetime is very interesting. He was forced to move to Prague because of the counter-reformation where he worked to write his laws. This makes me wonder if the counter-reformation and various religious conflicts on the time period didn’t occur, would he still have written his laws of planetary motion? I think it’s interesting to see how these events could have affected each other and how things could have been different if certain events didn’t occur.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 17, 2021 by zvrec

Galileo Galilei Birth: February 15, 1564.  Death: January 8, 1642

Justus Sustermans – Portrait of Galileo Galilei, 1636

Historical events:

The most important historical event in Galileo’s life should be Renaissance, during which Italy was the center of the revolution. Galileo was a leading figure in the scientific revolution during Renaissance. In that period, many achievements were made in fields such as painting, literature, music, astronomy, technology and exploration.

The other historical event I would like to mention is the colonization of America by European countries . That was a marking event for the Age of exploration. European countries gained lots of wealth through colonizing.

The Historical Figure and description :

The historical figure I want to mention is Willam Shakespeare. He was born on April 26, 1564 and died on April 23 1616. He lived at the same time with Galileo for 52 years. He was the greatest English writer. His work contributed greatly to the development of English literature and drama. Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, and Othello were his representative work.

My reflection

It is very interesting for me to learn the information about these famous historical figures. Although they devoted themselves in different fields, their work and their contributions clearly pointed toward a same background: Renaissance. This historical period had impressive power promoting the emergence of geniuses. I think the most crucial motivation behind the promotion was the cultural value of Renaissance which inspired people to free their minds against feudalism. Generally speaking, the example of Renaissance proves that the development of humanity relies tremendously on a encouraging atmosphere of society.

Sources:

16th century

17th century

William Shakespeare

Italian Renaissance

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Copernicus in Context

Posted on February 17, 2021 by wslopes

Nicholas Copernicus was born February 19th, 1473 and died May 24th, 1543. He was important to astronomy because he contested the commonly accepted geocentric model of the solar system and universe, favoring a heliocentric one. This not only led to one of the greatest advancements in astronomy, but it also helped open the door to questioning what was assumed to be correct, and he served as an inspiration to challenging the status quo. Further stressing his importance in astronomy, his work began to highlight the importance of Earth’s movement in our perception of the universe; specifically, he attempted to explain the rising and setting of celestial bodies as well as retrograde motion through Earth’s revolution and orbit.

One major world event that happened during Copernicus’s lifetime was Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the Americas in 1492. This is probably one of the most important events in history, as it not only caused the fall of the Native American civilization, but gave rise to our American one. Another major event that happened in his lifetime was Martin Luther’s posting of the 95 Theses in 1517, starting the Protestant Reformation. This started the formal chipping away of the Catholic Church’s power, and this updated take on religion allowed more freedom to progressive ideas in everything from politics to science.

A very important historical figure who lived alongside Copernicus was King Henry VIII, who was born June 28th, 1491 and died January 28th, 1547. He began the English Reformation, which was England’s divergence from the Catholic Church and creation of the Anglican Church. He notably had six wives, and divorced or beheaded almost all of them. This split laid the footing for trends we have seen in recent history, whether it be British isolationism (Brexit) or the continual subjugation of the Irish (Potato Famine), as they remained Catholic.

Learning about the context of the astronomers’ lives was very interesting– in history we usually learn about individual topics, but never really their concurrence with others. I never thought about how the discovery of the America’s may have affected astronomical development, or how Copernicus or other controversial researchers may have been emboldened by the likes of Martin Luther or Henry VIII. This context is also interesting because it is important to understand that these events in history are not happening in a void– they can almost always be connected to each other.

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